Lobotomy - Wikipedia. Lobotomy. Walter Freeman, left, and Dr. Watts study an X ray before a psychosurgical operation. Psychosurgery is cutting into the brain to form new patterns and rid a patient of delusions, obsessions, nervous tensions and the like. It consists of cutting or scraping away most of the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain.
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The procedure was controversial from its inception. It was prescribed for psychiatric (and occasionally other) conditions as a mainstream procedure in some Western countries for more than two decades. This was despite general recognition of frequent and serious side effects. While some patients experienced symptomatic improvement with the operation, the improvements were achieved at the cost of creating other impairments.
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The balance between benefits and risks contributed to the controversial nature of the procedure. The originator of the procedure, Portuguese neurologist Ant. The majority of lobotomies were performed on women; A 1.
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American hospitals found nearly 6. Ontario from 1. 94. British psychiatrist Maurice Partridge, who conducted a follow- up study of 3. Following the operation, spontaneity, responsiveness, self- awareness and self- control were reduced. Activity was replaced by inertia, and people were left emotionally blunted and restricted in their intellectual range.
The consequences of the operation have been described as . Some patients died as a result of the operation and others later committed suicide. Some were left severely brain- damaged.
Others were able to leave the hospital, or became more manageable within the hospital. A few people managed to return to responsible work, while at the other extreme people were left with severe and disabling impairments. Most people fell into an intermediate group, left with some improvement of their symptoms but also with emotional and intellectual deficits to which they made a better or worse adjustment. On average, there was a mortality rate of approximately 5 percent during the 1. The lobotomy procedure could have severe negative effects on a patient's personality and ability to function independently. Lobotomy patients often show a marked reduction in initiative and inhibition. They may also exhibit difficulty putting themselves in the position of others because of decreased cognition and detachment from society.
Immediately following surgery, patients were often stuporous, confused, and incontinent. Some developed an enormous appetite and gained considerable weight. Seizures were another common complication of surgery. Emphasis was put on the training of patients in the weeks and months following surgery.
Walter Freeman coined the term . The operation left people with an . In an unpublished memoir he described how the . When her parents had difficulty dealing with her behaviour, Freeman advised a system of rewards (ice- cream) and punishment (smacks). History. Many doctors, patients and family members of the period believed that despite potentially catastrophic consequences, the results of lobotomy were seemingly positive in many instances or, at least they were deemed as such when measured next to the apparent alternative of long- term institutionalisation.
Lobotomy has always been controversial, but for a period of the medical mainstream, it was even feted and regarded as a legitimate if desperate remedy for categories of patients who were otherwise regarded as hopeless. Most notably in 1.
Swiss psychiatrist, Gottlieb Burckhardt, initiated what is commonly considered the first systematic attempt at modern human psychosurgery. Burckhardt's decision to operate was informed by three pervasive views on the nature of mental illness and its relationship to the brain. First, the belief that mental illness was organic in nature, and reflected an underlying brain pathology; next, that the nervous system was organized according to an associationist model comprising an input or afferent system (a sensory center), a connecting system where information processing took place (an association center), and an output or efferent system (a motor centre); and, finally, a modular conception of the brain whereby discrete mental faculties were connected to specific regions of the brain. Burckhardt's hypothesis was that by deliberately creating lesions in regions of the brain identified as association centres a transformation in behaviour might ensue. According to his model, those mentally ill might experience . He reasoned, however, that removing material from either of the sensory or motor zones could give rise to . Instead, by targeting the association centres and creating a .
He operated on six patients in total and, according to his own assessment, two experienced no change, two patients became quieter, one patient experienced epileptic convulsions and died a few days after the operation, and one patient improved. Claiming a success rate of 5. Berlin Medical Congress and published a report, but the response from his medical peers was hostile and he did no further operations. In 1. 91. 2, two physicians based in Saint Petersburg, the leading Russian neurologist Vladimir Bekhterev and his younger Estonian colleague, the neurosurgeon Ludvig Puusepp, published a paper reviewing a range of surgical interventions that had been performed on the mentally ill. We are unable to explain how their author, holder of a degree in medicine, could bring himself to carry them out .. He had abandoned these attempts because of unsatisfactory results and this experience probably inspired the invective that was directed at Burckhardt in the 1.
The traditional narrative addresses the question of why Moniz targeted the frontal lobes by way of reference to the work of the Yale neuroscientist John Fulton and, most dramatically, to a presentation Fulton made with his junior colleague Carlyle Jacobsen at the Second International Congress of Neurology held in London in 1. At the 1. 93. 5 Congress, with Moniz in attendance. According to Fulton's account of the congress, they explained that prior to surgery, both animals, and especially Becky, the more emotional of the two, exhibited . During the question and answer section of the paper, Moniz, it is alleged, .
Fulton stated that he replied that while possible in theory it was surely . Moniz targeted the frontal lobes in the leucotomy procedure he first conceived in 1. That Moniz began his experiments with leucotomy just three months after the congress has reinforced the apparent cause and effect relationship between the Fulton and Jacobsen's presentation and the Portuguese neurologist's resolve to operate on the frontal lobes. As the author of this account Fulton, who has sometimes been claimed as the father of lobotomy, was later able to record that the technique had its true origination in his laboratory. Endorsing this version of events, in 1.
Harvard neurologist Stanley Cobb remarked during his presidential address to the American Neurological Association that, . In this previous narrative he mentioned an incidental, private exchange with Moniz, but it is likely that the official version of their public conversation he promulgated is without foundation. In fact, Moniz stated that he had conceived of the operation some time before his journey to London in 1. Pedro Almeida Lima, as early as 1.
The traditional account exaggerates the importance of Fulton and Jacobsen to Moniz's decision to initiate frontal lobe surgery, and omits the fact that a detailed body of neurological research that emerged at this time suggested to Moniz and other neurologists and neurosurgeons that surgery on this part of the brain might yield significant personality changes in the mentally ill. Under an evolutionary and hierarchical model of brain development it had been hypothesized that those regions associated with more recent development, such as the mammalian brain and, most especially, the frontal lobes, were responsible for more complex cognitive functions. However, this theoretical formulation found little laboratory support, as 1. This picture of the so- called . The refinement of neurosurgical techniques also facilitated increasing attempts to remove brain tumours, treat focal epilepsy in humans and led to more precise experimental neurosurgery in animal studies. Cases were reported where mental symptoms were alleviated following the surgical removal of diseased or damaged brain tissue. The accumulation of medical case studies on behavioural changes following damage to the frontal lobes led to the formulation of the concept of Witzelsucht, which designated a neurological condition characterised by a certain hilarity and childishness in the afflicted.
The picture of frontal lobe function that emerged from these studies was complicated by the observation that neurological deficits attendant on damage to a single lobe might be compensated for if the opposite lobe remained intact. In 1. 92. 2, the Italian neurologist Leonardo Bianchi published a detailed report on the results of bilateral lobectomies in animals that supported the contention that the frontal lobes were both integral to intellectual function and that their removal led to the disintegration of the subject's personality. Brickner concluded from this evidence that .
By the mid- 1. 93. This was reflected in the 1. London, which hosted as part of its deliberations, . Fulton and Jacobsen's paper, presented in another session of the conference on experimental physiology, was notable in linking animal and human studies on the function of the frontal lobes. Thus, at the time of the 1. Congress, Moniz had available to him an increasing body of research on the role of the frontal lobes that extended well beyond the observations of Fulton and Jacobsen. Nor was Moniz the only medical practitioner in the 1.
Jean- Luc Godard - Wikipedia. Jean- Luc Godard. Jean- Luc Godard at Berkeley, 1. Born(1. 93. 0- 1.
December 1. 93. 0 (age 8. Paris, France. Citizenship. French, Swiss. Alma mater. University of Paris. Occupation. Film critic, director, actor, cinematographer, screenwriter, editor, producer. Years active. 19. Notable work. Breathless.
My Life to Live. Contempt. Pierrot le Fou. Histoire(s) du cin. Anne Wiazemsky(m. Partner(s)Anne- Marie Mi. He is often identified with the 1. French film movement La Nouvelle Vague, or French New Wave. Like his New Wave contemporaries, Godard criticized mainstream French cinema's .
Many of Godard's films challenge the conventions of traditional Hollywood in addition to French cinema. Along with showing knowledge of film history through homages and references, several of his films expressed his political views; he was an avid reader of existential and Marxist philosophy. Pennebaker. His wealthy parents came from Protestant families of Franco–Swiss descent, and his mother was the daughter of Julien Monod, a founder of the Banque Paribas. She was the great- granddaughter of theologian Adolphe Monod. Relatives on his mother's side include also composer Jacques- Louis Monod, naturalist Th. At the outbreak of the Second World War, Godard was in France and returned to Switzerland with difficulty.
He spent most of the war in Switzerland, although his family made clandestine trips to his grandfather's estate on the French side of Lake Geneva. Godard attended school in Nyon, Switzerland. He lodged with the writer Jean Schlumberger. Having failed his baccalaureate exam in 1.
Switzerland. He studied in Lausanne and lived with his parents, whose marriage was breaking up. He spent time in Geneva also with a group that included another film fanatic, Roland Tolmatchoff, and the extreme rightist philosopher Jean Parvulesco. His older sister Rachel encouraged him to paint, which he did, in an abstract style. After time spent at a boarding school in Thonon to prepare for the retest, which he passed, he returned to Paris in 1.
He got involved with the young group of film critics at the cin. Godard originally held only French citizenship, then in 1.
Gland, canton of Vaud, Switzerland, possibly through simplified naturalisation through his Swiss father. Early career (1. 95. Godard began attending these clubs - the Cin. He has said: . We thought cinema would assert itself as an instrument of knowledge, a microscope.. They'd told us about Goethe, but not Dreyer.
We watched silent films in the era of talkies. We dreamed about film. We were like Christians in the catacombs. Along with Maurice Sch. He became friendly with his mother's lover, Jean- Pierre Laubscher, who was a labourer on the Grande Dixence Dam.
Through Laubscher he secured work himself as a construction worker at the Plaz Fleuri work site at the dam. He saw the possibility of making a documentary film about the dam and when his initial contract ended, in order to prolong his time at the dam, moved to the post of telephone switchboard operator. It was whilst on duty, in April 1. Laubscher that relayed the fact that Odile Monod, his mother, had died in a scooter accident. Thanks to Swiss friends who lent him a 3. He rewrote the commentary that Laubscher had written, and gave his film a rhyming title Op.
The company that administered the dam bought the film and used it for publicity purposes. A plan for a feature film of Goethe's Elective Affinities proved too ambitious and came to nothing. Truffaut enlisted his help to work on an idea he had for a film based on the true- crime story of a petty criminal, Michel Portail, who had shot a motorcycle policeman and whose girlfriend had turned him in to the police. But Truffaut failed to interest any producers.
Another project with Truffaut, a comedy about a country girl arriving in Paris, was also abandoned. Une histoire d'eau (1. Truffaut. In 1. 95. Godard, with a cast that included Jean- Paul Belmondo and Anne Colette, made his last short before gaining international prominence as a filmmaker, Charlotte et son Jules, an homage to Jean Cocteau. The film was shot in Godard's hotel room on the rue de Rennes and apparently reflected something of the 'romantic austerity' of Godard's own life at this time.
His Swiss friend Roland Tolmatchoff noted; . He travelled to the 1. Cannes Film Festival and asked Truffaut to let him use the story on which they had collaborated in 1. Michel Portail. He sought money from the producer Georges de Beauregard whom he had met previously whilst working briefly in the publicity department of Twentieth Century Fox's Paris office, and who was also at the Festival. Beauregard could offer his expertise, but was in debt from two productions based on Pierre Loti stories and so finance came rather from a film distributor, Ren.
His work during this period focused on relatively conventional films that often refer to different aspects of film history. Although Godard's work during this time is considered groundbreaking in its own right, the period stands in contrast to that which immediately followed it, during which Godard ideologically denounced much of cinema's history as . In Breathless, his citations include a movie poster showing Humphrey Bogart—from The Harder They Fall, his last film.
Quotations from, and references to literature include William Faulkner, Dylan Thomas, Louis Aragon, Rilke, Fran. The film also contains citations in images or on the soundtrack—Mozart, Picasso, J. Bach, Paul Klee, and Auguste Renoir.
Seberg had become famous in 1. Otto Preminger had chosen her to play Joan of Arc in his Saint Joan, and had then cast her in his acidulous 1. Bonjour Tristesse. In the role of Michel Poiccard, Godard cast Belmondo, an actor he had already called, writing in Arts in 1. Godard wanted Breathless to be shot like a documentary, with a lightweight handheld camera and a minimum of added lighting and Coutard had had experience as a documentary cameraman while working for the French army's information service in Indochina during the French- Indochina War. Tracking shots were filmed by Coutard from a wheelchair pushed by Godard. Though he had prepared a traditional screenplay, he dispensed with it and Godard wrote the dialogue day by day as the production went ahead.
One reviewer mentioned Alexandre Astruc's prophecy of the age of the cam. The film begins on 1. May 1. 95. 8, the date of the attempted putsch in Algeria, and ends later the same month.
In the film, Bruno Forestier a photojournalist who has links with a right wing paramilitary group working for the French government, is ordered to murder a professor accused of aiding the Algerian resistance. He is in love with Veronica Dreyer, a young woman who has worked with the Algerian fighters. He is captured by Algerian militants and tortured.
His organisation captures and tortures her. The 'little soldier' was played by Michel Subor and Veronica Dreyer by Anna Karina—the first collaboration between Godard and the Danish- born—of Russian extraction—actress. Unlike Seberg, Karina had virtually no experience as an actress and Godard used her awkwardness as an element of her performance. He wrote the dialogue every day and, since it was filmed without direct sound and was dubbed, called dialogue to the actors.
Forestier was a character close to Godard himself, an image- maker and intellectual, 'more or less my spokesman, but not totally' Godard told an interviewer. Godard and Karina were a couple by the end of the shoot. She appeared again, along with Belmondo, in Godard's first color film, A Woman Is a Woman (1. American musical. Adjustments that Godard made to the original version of the story gave it autobiographical resonances, 'specifically in regard to his relationship with Anna Karina'. The film revealed 'the confinement within the four walls of domestic life', and 'the emotional and artistic fault lines that threatened their relationship'. Karina starred as Nana, an errant mother and aspiring actress whose financially strained circumstances lead her to the life of a streetwalker.
It is an episodic account of her rationalizations to prove she is free, even though she is tethered at the end of her pimp's short leash. In one touching scene in a cafe, she spreads her arms out and announces she is free to raise or lower them as she wishes. The film was a popular success and led to Columbia giving him a deal where he would be provided with $1. It was the influence and suggestion of Roberto Rossellini that led Godard to make this film which follows two peasants who join the army of a king, only to find futility in the whole thing as the king reveals the deception of war- administrating leaders.
His most commercially successful film was Le M. A coproduction between Italy and France, Contempt became known as a pinnacle in cinematic modernism with its profound reflexivity.
The film follows Paul (Piccoli), a screenwriter who is commissioned by the arrogant American movie producer Prokosch (Jack Palance) to rewrite the script for an adaptation of Homer's Odyssey, which the Austrian director Fritz Lang has been filming. Lang's 'high culture' interpretation of the story is lost on Prokosch, whose character is a firm indictment of the commercial motion picture hierarchy. Another prominent theme is the inability to reconcile love and labor, which is illustrated by Paul's crumbling marriage to Camille (Bardot) during the course of shooting. Anouchka Films. He directed Bande . It was a slow, deliberate, toned- down black- and- white picture without a real story. The film was shot in four weeks.
It showed Godard's . Eddie Constantine starred as Lemmy Caution, a detective who is sent into a city controlled by a giant computer named Alpha 6. His mission is to make contact with Professor von Braun (Howard Vernon), a famous scientist who has fallen mysteriously silent, and is believed to be suppressed by the computer.
Pierrot le fou (1. Gilles Jacob, an author, critic, and president of the Cannes Film Festival, called it both a .